Representing Irish Religious Histories: Historiography, Ideology and Practice

The Cambridge History of Ireland: A mammoth, inspiring work

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Nevertheless, the Anabaptists retained, in their doctrines of God and Christ, the historical orthodoxy of the Nicene Creed. Those Protestants who went on to repudiate orthodox Trinitarianism as part of their Reformation claimed to be carrying out, more consistently than Luther or Calvin or the Anabaptists had done, the full implications of the rejection of Roman Catholicism, which they all had in common. The challenge of the Protestant Reformation became also an occasion for a resurgent Roman Catholicism to clarify and to reaffirm Roman Catholic principles; that endeavour had, in one sense, never been absent from the life and teaching of the church, but it was undertaken now with new force.

As the varieties of Protestantism proliferated, the apologists for Roman Catholicism pointed to the Protestant principle of the right of private interpretation of Scripture as the source of this confusion. Against the Protestant elevation of Scripture to the position of sole authority, they emphasized that Scripture and church tradition are inseparable and always have been. Pressing this point further, they denounced justification by faith alone and other cherished Protestant teachings as novelties without grounding in authentic church tradition.

Yet these negative reactions to Protestantism were not by any means the only—perhaps not even the primary—form of participation by Roman Catholicism in the history of the Reformation. The emergence of Protestantism did not exhaust the reformatory impulse within Roman Catholicism, nor can it be seen as the sole inspiration for Catholic reform. Rather, to a degree that has usually been overlooked by Protestant and Catholic historians alike, there was a distinct historical movement in the 16th century that can only be identified as the Roman Catholic Reformation.

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Roman Catholicism and the Protestant Reformation

Table Of Contents. Submit Feedback. Thank you for your feedback. As such, for Mormon believers, the Book of Mormon possesses the same canonical standing as the old and new testaments do for Protestants and Catholics. In fact, just as early Christians saw the New Testament, with its narrative of Christ as the fulfillment of Old Testament prophesies, as the completion of God's delivery of scriptural truth, so too did Mormons see the Book of Mormon, with its prediction of a new prophetic figure, as God's third and final dispensation.

To believers, in fact, the Book of Mormon built directly on the promises and predictions of the earlier texts: it was the "sealed" book, described in the Book of Isaiah, the appearance of which would signal the coming of the "end-times" predicted in the Book of Revelation.

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Thus did the Mormons identify themselves as "saints," the new Israelites called out from the Gentiles to usher in the millennium. Finally, the Book of Mormon revealed that on the day it "spoke out of the ground," a prophet, named Joseph like his father, would appear and, with the aid of revelations delivered to him directly from God, establish the Godly kingdom on earth that would prepare the way for Christ's Second Coming.

From the beginning, Joseph Smith and his followers provoked ridicule for Mormonism's seemingly magical if not superstitious origins, and opposition as a heresy that dared to claim itself "the only true and living church upon the face of the whole earth. Kirtland was the seat of the prophet where in l the Mormons built and consecrated an elaborate temple. In both places, they isolated themselves from their neighbors, and, much as other nineteenth-century religious communitarian groups like the Shakers or the Amish, set up cohesive, economically self-sufficient and largely self-governing communities, setting themselves up not simply as a group of worshipers but as a people apart.

Neither Ohio nor Missouri provided adequate refuge against the hostility of neighbors suspicious of Mormon belief and fearful of Mormonism's growing numbers and economic prosperity and power. In their Missouri neighbors attacked the settlement, forcing the Mormons to abandon Independence.

Opposition also intensified back in Ohio and by early l most of the Kirtland Mormons, led by the prophet, had departed for Missouri, where they joined forces with their Independence coreligionists who had resettled in a county organized especially for them.

Still, the tension between the Mormons and their Gentile neighbors escalated into armed conflict, and the saints were forced to flee once again. In the spring of , nearly 15, Mormons crossed into Illinois, where they purchased the town of Commerce, which they renamed Nauvoo. Granted a charter that made Nauvoo virtually an independent municipality with its own court system and militia, the Mormon settlement by l had become the largest city in the state.

In Nauvoo, Smith completed the process of organizational and doctrinal consolidation begun in Kirtland. What had begun as an effort to recover the clarity and simplicity of early Christianity and the pure and authoritative forms of the apostolic church, developed into a more doctrinally complex and more elaborate and hierarchical religious structure.

With the consecration of the temple in Kirtland, Smith turned away from the example of the early church and embraced more ancient Hebraic models of organization. In addition to deacons, elders, priests and bishops, he instituted a "First Presidency," composed of Smith as president and two counselors, a high counsel, a special Quorum of Seventy, a Council of Twelve Apostles, and a patriarch, the first of which Smith ordained his own father. Finally, revelation granted the Lord's "servant, Joseph Smith, jun. In addition to this revelation securing the ultimate authority of the prophet and president , Smith announced the key revelation concerning "celestial marriage" under which saints' marriages were "sealed" for eternity.

This doctrine became the basis for the revelation disclosed to a chosen few saints in l for the practice of "plural marriages," under which select and worthy Mormon men could take multiple wives. Growing Mormon power alarmed their initially welcoming Illinois neighbors. In addition to their economic power, Mormons voted as a block in accordance with revelation announced from the pulpit.

Representing Irish Religious Histories

In , Smith, who had revealed a plan for organizing the kingdom of God on earth with himself as king, declared his candidacy for president of the United States. In June, Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum were arrested, dragged from jail, and murdered by a group of militia called out to protect the state against a feared Mormon uprising. After Smith's murder, the Mormons regrouped and under the leadership of Brigham Young, selected as Smith's successor as prophet and president, undertook the "great trek" westward to the Utah Territory, where they established a virtual Mormon kingdom, centered in Great Salt Lake City, which they called the State of Deseret.

In Utah, under the long leadership of Young , building on the precepts of plural marriage and patriarchal, prophetic governance promulgated by Joseph Smith, the Mormons established a unique, cohesive, economically self-sufficient, and thriving society. Indeed, at the time of Young's death in l, the Utah Mormons, augmented by converts from England and elsewhere in Europe, numbered close to , The Great Basin Kingdom endured largely intact into the s.

The apparitions began on 13 May and continued on the 13 th of every month through October , eventually gathering audiences of tens of thousands of pilgrims claimed to have seen the vision. The apparitions included interpreted prophecies of an even greater war to come, visions of hell, and the need to repent for sins. Apparitions often took the form of the ghost of a dead comrade or relative visiting believers. One prominent episode of supernatural contact occurred to Will Bird of the 42 nd Battalion, perhaps the most famous front-line Canadian soldier.

After the Battle of Vimy Ridge in April , Bird sought shelter in rear-area trenches and fell asleep. Steve beckoned Will away from his resting place to a new location where he thought he had been sleepwalking or hallucinating; he promptly fell asleep again. When his comrades awoke Will the next day, they were amazed to find him alive: his former location had been completely destroyed by a direct hit from a high-explosive shell, which dismembered the bodies of other nearby soldiers such that his friends had been combing through the body parts attempting to identify him.

Will recounted the experience to others, aware that he sounded delusional, but he believed that his dead brother had intervened to save his life. Other Great War participants took a more active role in attempting to contact the dead, most famously through the phenomena known as spiritualism. As Jay Winter noted in his classic work, spiritualism contained both secular and religious variants. Even some avowed secularists nonetheless believed that some form of the human personality lived on after physical death. Spiritualism was a diverse phenomenon that included true believers, curious observers, the mentally deranged, and schemers attempting to defraud the gullible.

Perhaps the most famous evangelist of the spiritualist phenomenon was the creator of Sherlock Holmes, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , who lost his son, brother and brother-in-law during the war. Religious spiritualism often occurred at the margins of established church doctrines, though the Catholic notion of intercessory saint cultures helped to blur boundaries. Beyond famous personalities like Arthur Conan Doyle, ordinary soldiers and civilians used a wide variety of physical items in the belief that they could influence metaphysical reality.

Talismans and amulets found numerous forms during the war, sometimes including lockets of hair, rings from loved ones or personal items associated with family members or local religious sites. Many of these objects adapted traditional forms such as the cross. The items were used for a variety of purposes, usually to ward off injury and death. While holding such objects, people uttered incantations of all kinds trying to avert disaster and return home to a state of peace. Soldiers went to war bearing religious medals of saints, while home front believers similarly invoked saints as intercessors to protect their loved ones fighting.

The pre-Christian and pagan elements of Catholic and Orthodox religious cultures allowed an easier conceptual shift for religious believers to embrace a wide variety of talismanic practices designed to ward off evil. The plethora of saints allowed believers to invoke the protection of specific intercessors, such as St. Barbara for artillery and miners, St.

The Rebellion – a brief overview – The Irish Story

George for cavalry or St. Joseph for engineers. The soldiers formed a cross of copper by using the fragments of detonated artillery shell casings. For the rosary chain, the POWs used cartridge casings from 6. Postcards formed one of the most visible and popular traces of religious belief on a large scale. Many showed Jesus Christ standing watch over soldiers in the trenches, sometimes leading them in battle, or comforting the dying on the battlefield.

The symbolism of the dying Christ on the cross was juxtaposed in explicit comparison with dying soldiers. Some postcards invoked the saints as patrons that would protect the believer and in some cases harm the enemy. More personally, postcards of churches and religious sites even destroyed ones served as souvenirs, allowing visitors to claim that they represented a bit of culture in a world gone mad. Such acts, demonstrated to the receiver, asserted that the visitor was a defender and respecter of culture.

A wide variety of saints made an appearance in religiously themed art and literature. Some were explicitly co-opted for national purposes, such as St. Michael in the service of Germany or Joan of Arc for France. Joan had become a famous figure for her steadfast devotion to keeping the English invaders off French soil, which was ironic when Joan was pressed into service for French Catholics in , now alongside their English comrades. Popular religion drew on family bonds, solidifying connections between battlefront and home front.

Highly personal stories of family belief took many forms, sometimes quite pointed and with earthy descriptions of practice. In July , Minna Falkenhain wrote to her husband who was currently serving as a German soldier in Russia:. Religiously charged letters from home formed a major source of connection between soldiers and the home front. Variously called protective letters, chain letters, snowball letters, etc. The letters claimed that they would protect soldiers from destruction as well as harm the enemy. In the atomizing terror of the war, both in battle and at home, people responded to the stress with a variety of coping mechanisms.

These methods evinced a number of social-psychological strategies that were highly individualistic. One soldier, in dread of the 13 th day of the month, felt the need to kill thirteen flies in a sacrifice that would prevent him from being killed at an appointed time. He made the sacrifice and felt that this action saved his life.

Such practices began almost immediately at the beginning of the war. In mid-August , German newspapers reported that Berlin women were receiving this card:. A blessing against all weapons and bullets. Late into the war, fortune-tellers made numerous appearances, especially playing on the fears of families on the home front who feared for their relatives in battle and were unable to receive regular communication from them.

In such instances, prophecy earned some individuals considerable sums of money. Furthermore, tarot card readers and phrenologists in Bremen and Frankfurt were similarly punished after making too many false predictions. Replicating historigraphical trends and respecting manageable word limits, this essay has previously concentrated on Christianity in Europe. However, religious belief was a global phenomenon, and in the future, historians must take into account developments in popular religion across the globe, particularly outside Europe.

Arguing in favor of viewing the Great War as a crusade, Philip Jenkins has underscored how the Great War rearranged the religious landscape on a global level, especially the reordering of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.

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