The Psychology of the Language Learner Revisited
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In this objective, critical evaluation In this objective, critical evaluation of a rapidly expanding field, Professor Herriot examines language as skilled behaviour, generative linguistics and psychology, behaviourist approaches to meaning, language acquisition and impairment, and View Product.
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Next it looks at the differences and similarities that have been proposed between L1 and L2 acquisition. Finally it concludes with a plea for the independence of SLA research from L1 acquisition research. Early SLA research in the s drew on first language acquisition research not only for its ideas but also for its research techniques. The dangers are using ideas and techniques that do not transfer to L2 acquisition for various reasons and employing them long after their sell-by date in L1 acquisition research.
This concept served to liberate SLA research from the dead hand of structural linguistics and Contrastive Analysis by starting from the learner rather than a preset apparatus. Yet, despite paying lip-service to interlanguage, the vast majority of SLA research never quite accepted the interlanguage assumption that learners have to be studied in their own right. The most influential concept taken from L1 acquisition research was undoubtedly that of developmental sequence. In a sense such longitudinal projects aimedc at establishing the stages of development; what does the child learn first, second,?
They found evidence for an L2 sequence that was similar to but nonetheless distinct from the L1 sequence in Brown The order in which things are acquired is then taken to be the crucial evidence for language acquisition. As a car-driver, it does not matter to you in which order you learnt to steer, use the brake, change gear etc. Teasing out language acquisition from these other factors is a major task for L1 acquisition research. Nor is the concept of stage itself clearly defined.
Most SLA research such as Dulay and Burt has used the continuum meaning ; a stage has no coherent characteristics of its own other than its position on the continuum; one thing just comes after another. Processability theory Pienemann, is like more a plateau and transition stage theory with broad characteristics for each stage.
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Saying that language acquisition proceeds through stages of development is empty without defining what a stage is. The main question for many researchers has been whether the stages and processes through which L2 learners develop are the same as those for L1 children. Experiments indeed showed that L2 learners acquired things in a sequence resembling L1 acquisition.
The Psychology of the Language Learner Revisited
Like L1 children Cromer, , L2 users first confused the difference between John is easy to please and John is eager to please and sorted it out comparatively late Cook, ; [later Cook. The importance of stagiation depends on whether you accept that the route is important rather than the process or the target. I can walk to work, or go by bicycle or by car, with slight variations according to one-way streets and pedestrianised areas etc, but does it matter what I do so long as I get there?
As a new area of research, SLA research undoubtedly borrowed most of its research techniques from first language acquisition and has continued to do so.
After all, why not? A useful practical survey of the main L1 research techniques is provided in McDaniel et al The techniques most obviously borrowed from L1 acquisition research are those for studying actual sentences that L2 learners produce, which we can call natural data Cook, EA in the main tried to find the origins of errors in the knowledge of the first language, an explanation that was clearly not possible for L1 researchers.
Another popular technique with natural data was scoring obligatory occurrences of particular syntactic forms. The second broad family of techniques borrowed from L1 research generated controlled data Cook, One form this takes is getting learners to produce naturalistic speech.
Shop Our Brands. Roberson, D. Park, K-S. This study used wiki-based literature circles as an instructional method to engage EFL learners in collaborative learning. English for Specific Purpose, 10, Cognition, ,
For example Slobin and Welsh devised the elicited imitation technique which asks L1 children to repeat sentences; the ways in which they change the sentence are believed to reveal properties of their underlying competence. Elicited imitation was used for second language acquisition by Cook for testing the comprehension of relative clauses, and by many others. Eliciting sentences through picture description was also used by for example Bellugi and Brown for L1 plurals and by Dulay and Burt for L2 grammatical morphemes. An important additional source of information for SLA research is introspection data Cook, L2 learners are asked about their emotions, motivations and strategies, surveyed in say Dornyei or McDonough One key technique in SLA research has been grammaticality judgements, the vital technique used in generative SLA research.
L2 learners are asked whether they feel that certain sentences are grammatical or not and their answers compared with those of native speakers, explicitly or implicitly as in say Hawkins and Chen L1 research has mostly eschewed testing the grammaticality judgements of young children, partly because of doubts about what these judgements actually mean, partly because of the difficulty of administering them, though they are stoutly defended by McDaniel et al provided they are carried out in a way that makes sense to the child.
Despite this, Muhammad Hannan used grammaticality judgements to find an L2 sequence of acquisition for Bengali-speaking children in East London.
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE LANGUAGE LEARNER REVISITED Over the past decade, the focus of inquiry into the psychology of SLA has shifted from the. The Psychology of the Language Learner Revisited will appeal to students and researchers in a wide range of disciplines, including applied linguistics, second.
And they are suspect for comparing L1 and L2 learning because one of the things that changes in L2 learners is precisely the ability to treat language metalinguistically Bialystok, Let us now turn to some current views of how children acquire their first language to second language acquisition before relating them to second language acquisition.
Since the mid s an influential psychology theory has been called usage-based linguistics, among other names. As described by Tomasello , this has two important components: intention-reading and pattern finding, which reappear in different guises in other forms of cognitive psychology. Trevarthen filmed mothers talking to babies face to face. Simple enough but a clear sign of being able to see things from another point of view: if I were my mother, moving my eyes would mean I was looking at something; therefore there is something to be seen if I turn round.
Another example is the well-known false belief test, which has many variations. Typically two girls called Sally and Molly are in the same room with the experimenter. The crucial thing for language acquisition is then being able to see the world from another point of view; lack of a theory of mind is one of the causes of autism Baron-Cohen, Looked at from an SLA perspective, the L2 learner no longer needs to go through this process; L2 learners already have a theory of mind and do not need to develop it over again.
Goetz has shown that young L2 learners pass such theory of mind tests earlier than monolinguals; learning a second language provides an initial impetus to getting a theory of mind. L2 learners may go a stage beyond a theory of mind to a theory of minds: monolingual children may get the impression that all other minds have a similar point of view; bilingual children or adults are soon convinced of the multiplicity of points of view. Gleitman introduced the metaphor of frogs and tadpoles into language development: once a tadpole transforms into a frog, the process cannot be reversed.
Indeed I once conducted an experiment with hypnotic age regression that tried to demonstrate that adults could not speak like five-year-olds, alas abandoned for methodological and ethical reasons. Language is for doing things and for relating to people. Social theories of language therefore imply the first language emerges through interaction between children and adults. Different social functions have been emphasised from time to time.