Innovations in Educational Psychology: Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Human Development

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Learning researchers Michelene Chi and Ruth Wylie have proposed a framework that differentiates cognitive engagement during learning into four modes: interactive, constructive, active, and passive presented in decreasing order of the intensity of engagement , with interactive and constructive modes having the greatest impact on learning and conceptual development. Constructive engagement is defined as activities where learners generate some kind of additional externalized product beyond the information they were originally provided with, such as generating inferences and explanations or constructing a new representational format e.

Interactive engagement goes one step further and occurs when two or more partners peers, teacher and learner, or intelligent computer agent and learner together contribute to a mutual dialogue in a constructive mode. Providing regular opportunities to generate active responses, such as through informal assessments or practice in the field, helps learners reinforce their learning while at the same time providing information about current states of proficiency.

As these examples suggest, corrective feedback is another tool that can help to promote accurate learning and reinforce retention over time Lyster and Ranta, Learning opportunities that are deliberately designed with these principles of learning and memory in mind often show significant learning gains over traditional instructional practices such as lecture and rote memorization or self-organized learning Bjork and Bjork, ; Bjork, Dunlosky, and Kornell, In Chapter 6 , we will discuss the choices that project designers need to make in order to support science learning in citizen science.

As with the all the processes of learning described below, designers of citizen science projects can leverage the role of memory in learning to support specific science learning outcomes. As noted above, human thinking, learning, and behavior is fundamentally shaped by the need to engage in purposeful activity within social systems involving other people. As active agents, humans engage with the objective world in ways that infuse it with meaning.

Activity theory e.

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For example, members of a team of health care providers in a hospital are the individual subjects in a community and their patients are the objects. Activity systems are characterized by rules and conventions, which evolve historically and culturally, as well as divisions of labor and participation structures, which may include social strata or a hierarchical structure to the activity, with different actors taking on distinctive roles.

Activity systems are often used as a way of modeling practice in various contexts, including educational practice, in such a way that systems-level relations and dynamics are highlighted. In the context of citizen science, activity theory offers ways to think about the complex set of roles, objectives, values, and activities that can emerge when volunteer participants are simultaneously members of other communities, such as master naturalists and conservationists, community activists, hobbyists, students or teachers in formal or informal education, or workers engaged in related economic activity e.

Actors may come from distinctly different groups, each with its own set of objectives, tools, customs, discourse patterns, role structures, and ways of doing things. Activity theory suggests that participants and organizers may advance collaborative goals by paying deliberate attention to recognizing or designing appropriate role structures, shared tools, and systems of communication to take advantage of the resources that different activity systems can potentially contribute while promoting common action and understanding.

Another example that lends itself to an activity systems analysis comes from Ottinger , who presents the case of a multisite study and report completed by a coalition of environmental and community groups working in parallel with credentialed scientists Coming Clean and Global Community Monitor, The study entails the development and deployment of modified instruments and protocols for sampling air quality in ways that were scientifically credible but more affordable and responsive to the concerns and questions of community groups.

They allowed project participants to collect data at time intervals and in locations associated with community health concerns, and they provided data that pushed beyond prior standards that focused primarily on long-term averages. Ottinger's account also illustrates the tensions and interplay among the roles taken by community activists, scientists, and regulatory authorities around issues such as authorship and dissemination of reports, setting standards, and critiquing standard scientific practices vs.

In summary, activity theory provides a way of identifying, analyzing, and modifying the elements—such as communities, actors and roles, objects of activity, tools, and practices—that both mediate and represent learning.

Competence in any domain, and specifically in science, requires the ability to recognize relevance and potential applications of knowledge in varying contexts. While individuals new to the field known as novices tend to focus on superficial aspects of a situation and may have correspondingly shallow problem solving methods, experts quickly and accurately perceive higher-order relations, deep structure, and meaningful patterns Chi, Feltovich and Glaser, ; Kellman and Massey, Experts tend to be fast and accurate, in large part because they process available information selectively—ignoring information that is irrelevant and registering information that is not noticed by novices.

They are also better able to make fine discriminations and to apply their knowledge to novel cases. Experts are particularly good at recognizing conditions of application of knowledge—that is, knowing which principles and concepts are relevant in a particular situation Chi, Feltovich and Glaser, ; Kellman and Garrigan, In this subsection, we discuss the role of conceptual change and perceptual learning in the development of expertise. It is important to note that in science, development of expertise hinges on the ability to utilize scientific tools and practices.

We discuss this particular aspect of developing expertise—using scientific tools and participating in science practices—later in this chapter, where we discuss specific kinds of learning in science. One way of understanding how people develop expertise in content areas—specifically in the domain of science—explores the evolution of foundational ideas from the perspective of conceptual development over time.

Theorists of conceptual development have noted repeatedly that mature concepts are often qualitatively different from concepts held by children or by uninstructed adults Duit and Treagust, ; National Research Council, Acquiring sophisticated understanding of concepts is not merely a matter of accumulating more factual knowledge. Some early understandings can be readily nurtured in thoughtful learning settings Gelman et al. On the other hand, strong restructuring is required when novice and expert conceptual structures are fundamentally incompatible or incommensurate Carey, In this case, rather than refining individual concepts or adding new concepts to existing ones, the nature of the concepts themselves and the explanatory structures in which they are embedded undergo change.

Chi and her colleagues Chi, Slotta, and de Leeuw, argue that some science learning is particularly difficult because learners' initial conceptions belong to a different ontological category than corresponding scientific conceptions.

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For example, many novices think of heat, gravity, and force as types of material substances, or properties of matter, rather than interactive processes. This can lead learners to misconstrue instruction, as happens when a learner who thinks of electrical current as similar to flowing water draws on matter-based conceptions, like volume or mass, to try to understand electrical phenomena.

Strike and Posner show how conceptual change can occur when a learner begins to be sufficiently dissatisfied with a prior conception e.

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However, a number of studies indicate that intuitive ideas are also persistent and learners may ignore, reject or distort anomalous information. Even experts do this, as is illustrated by the history of science Chinn and Brewer, Further, intuitive beliefs and alternative frameworks can continue to be activated in particular contexts even after an individual shows evidence of understanding and using a scientific concept.

Importantly, people can hold multiple conceptions about phenomena as they engage in rapid reorganization of knowledge and respond to the demands of a particular context. Even experts will shift their reasoning and understanding about a phenomenon depending upon the context e. When confronted with novel activities or practices, learners may need to create their own alternative pathways to reconcile conflicting cultural, ethnic, and academic identities Nasir and Saxe, Learning environments that only see learners' alternative conceptions as wrong can produce conflicts between learners' cultural, ethnic, and academic identities Nasir and Saxe, , and this approach can also leave narrow the possibilities of generative engagements between community ways of knowing and scientific ways of knowing e.

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Instead, research shows that many phenomena of interest in scientific study are intimately related to people's everyday experiences and knowledge systems of cultural communities historically underrepresented in science can, and should, be regarded as assets for learning Cajate, ; National Research Council, Educators can do this in a variety of ways. The use of culturally relevant examples, analogies, artifacts, and community resources that are familiar to learners can make science more relevant and understandable Barba, , and integrated approaches that rely on the input of community member participation e.

Sconiers and Rosiek point out that science inquiry demands patience, skepticism, and a willingness to embrace uncertainty and ambiguity—which demands trust between teachers and students. Accordingly, the development of trust and caring relationships between teachers and students may be necessary in order to develop deep understandings of science content and practices. In short, research demonstrates that conceptual learning is advanced in contexts and with instructors that recognize learners are simultaneously developing expertise in multiple knowledge systems Bang and Medin, ; Levine Rose and Calabrese Barton, Another process by which people develop domain expertise is perceptual learning, defined as an increase in the ability to extract relevant information from the environment as a result of experience Adolph and Kretch, ; Gibson, Perceptual learning happens at all ages from infancy through mature adulthood, and has been studied in many professional and academic domains, including medical learning, aviation, mathematics, and chemistry, as well as in everyday learning Kellman and Massey, Perceptual learning is often implicit and can be seen as a fundamental complement to more familiar ways of knowing, such as factual and procedural knowledge.

Common instructional techniques emphasizing explicit didactic instruction or procedural practice typically do not advance perceptual learning very effectively Kellman and Massey, Instead, perceptual learning often results from extended experiences with many examples as individuals participate in a meaningful activity.

Recent research demonstrates that perceptual learning can be accelerated by providing systematic opportunities for learners to practice making relevant discriminations and classifications with feedback Kellman, Massey, and Son, Learning software is an efficient and cost-effective way to do this. However, it is important for learners to experience a full range of variation in the examples they work with, so that the critical features, patterns, and structures involved in the activity are observed repeatedly across many different situations. Deliberate training tutorials can also ensure that participants have sufficient exposure to unusual or rare cases or difficult discriminations that they might not otherwise encounter often enough to gain proficiency.

This kind of repeated classification activity across a range of examples is a central feature of many citizen science projects, like Zooniverse or COASST, suggesting that citizen science projects may be a particularly rich venue for perceptual learning. Rather than conceiving of learning as the acquisition of discrete mental contents, the focus is on how human minds attune themselves to meaningful patterns, relations, and structures in the environment, typically in the context of a purposeful task or activity Bereiter and Scardamalia, ; Goldstone, Landy, and Son, In addition to enabling the selective pick up of information in natural settings, as when a geologist effortlessly sees complex structure and patterns in natural rock formations, it also applies to processing of image representations, such as medical images read by a radiologist, and to symbolic representations, such as equations perceived by a mathematician or chemical formula notations read by a chemist.

Indeed, fluent reading in everyday life relies heavily on automatic information pick up obtained through perceptual learning. Goodwin's concept of professional vision focuses on practices within professions that create and operate on highly mediated representations of experience. For example, professional practices may highlight specific phenomena in a complex scene to make them salient, and they may apply verbal codes to classify phenomena and relate them to each other in an articulated framework. Professionals also produce shared material representations, such as graphs, charts, images, and annotated records.

For example, teams of archeologists excavating a site use shared procedures to create profile maps of dirt that capture spatial relations among distinctive layers. Novices typically gain experience with these practices and tools as apprentices and, over time, develop the professional vision characteristic of their profession. People create, coordinate, and behaviorally interact with aspects of visual displays to make objects or conditions of interest visible to themselves and to each other.

For example, a student working with a tutor on graphs of linear functions develops a set of visual practices specific to the graphing of points and lines on grids representing the Cartesian plane. In Stevens' analysis, embodied action e. This section focuses on the kinds of learning in science: learning disciplinary content; using scientific tools; understanding and working with data; developing motivation, interest, and identity; and developing scientific reasoning, epistemological thinking, and an understanding of the nature of science.

Throughout this section, we refer back to the strands of informal science learning outlined in Chapter 3 to provide a framework for understanding the outcomes that result from these different kinds of learning in science. As emphasized in that chapter, we note that focusing on strands in insolation is an analytic convenience to help understand science learning; in practice strands are inextricably interwoven and projects that effectively advance science learning outcomes often advance and connect multiple strands.

In the next chapter, we see examples of these kinds of learning in the context of citizen science.

Learning science content and developing expertise in a scientific discipline involve several types of knowledge, which are acquired through multiple learning processes. With respect to the Learning Science in Informal Environments: People, Places, and Pursuits LSIE ; National Research Council, strands, science content learning is most closely related to understanding scientific content and knowledge Strand 2 and using the tools and language of science Strand 5.

The learning processes that help develop specific disciplinary knowledge and associated competencies, which can be quite sophisticated, go well beyond simple rote memorization of facts. Although the acquisition of specific knowledge is sometimes contrasted with conceptual understanding and the two are treated as if they are competing learning priorities, evidence shows that they play complementary and mutually supportive roles in learning.

INTRODUCTION

At the same time, a rich foundation of specific knowledge animates abstract concepts and provides accessible, meaningful instantiations of important relations and patterns. Expertise in specific disciplinary content requires declarative knowledge—concepts that can be verbalized. A budding geologist, for instance, must learn the names and composition of different types of rocks and minerals and the processes by which they are formed. A volunteer monitoring invasive or endangered species must learn their typical habitats and the properties by which each type is identified.

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