Imperfect Unions: Security Institutions Over Time and Space
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Yet, despite these differences, important insights can be gained from both approaches. In IR, the cooperation literature has been dominated by authors and approaches linked to regime theory.
Holzgrefe ; Robert O. At the level of political elites, the participants identified the crisis of political leadership in NATO nations among the most probable causes of weakening alliance cohesion in the future. Advertisement Hide. Helga Haftendorn Editor , Robert O. May show signs of minor shelf wear and contain limited notes and highlighting.
This basic deinition can be easily applied to the realm of inter-organizational relations. Interests might be pursued autonomously or through coopera- tion, depending on the cost—beneit calculus of actors who are perceived as utility maximizers by rational institutionalist, or on normative considerations as sociological institutionalists add Barnett and Finnemore Cooperation is more likely, according to Keohane, in dense policy spaces or, put differently: the more interdependence exists the more cooperation we see.
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For Keohane, the act and process of cooperation also imply that there is, instead of a condition of pre-existing harmony of goals between two actors, a mixture of conlicting and complementary interests. Thus, there is a situation of actual or potential conlict between actors and their policies. Joseph Grieco , p. Cooperation between organizations is not an automatic or almost natural incli- nation of organizations to cooperate, but rather a signiicant challenge, which requires serious efforts.
Lotia and Hardy , pp.
Module Overview
As outlined above, one of the most frequent stimuli for cooperation is the need to access material or immaterial resources other organizations hold. Resources can range from personnel, equipment and inancing to knowledge, expertise, procedures or legitimacy-providing speech acts. Cooperation can even take the form of co-locating staff in order to facilitate coordination, exchange informa- tion, and build trust. More generally, Rafael Biermann , p. Second and more ambi- tiously, coordination of policies, when organizations adapt their own policies to the preferences of other organizations either via deliberately concerting goals, strategies, or activities based on physical interaction in order to achieve mutu- ally beneicial outcomes or by simply taking the activities, structures, or ideas of other organizations into account when taking unilateral action, intentionally or not.
Third and most far-reaching, joint decision-making among organiza- tions in the case of common projects or programs that might require a division of labor and delineation of responsibilities. Here, we see not only the poten- tially greatest joint gains but also most serious autonomy concerns and fears of undue dependence. KOOPS the other. Thus, within the life cycle of inter-organizational processes, ad hoc interaction on the ground might be followed by formal agreements, declara- tions, and memoranda of understanding, which may lead to more coherent cooperation on the ground, joint training and planning, periodic joint lessons learned, and even detailed inter-organizational action plans at inter-secretariat level Novosseloff ; Koops a; Pietz ; Tardy , p.
Yet, even though a high level of institutionalization is an indicator for the matu- rity and density of a relationship, it nevertheless is not a reliable indicator of successful cooperation see below. Future research needs to focus more on assessing the causal links between the degree of institutionalization and impact on the ground.
Finally, the literature on inter-organizational relations seeks to identify facili- tating conditions that enable cooperation across the IOR life cycle. A major gap in research so far relates to identifying and isolating the key factors inluencing the formation and maintenance of cooperative relations. Cooperation and coordination would not be needed, if harmony would be the default position between two entities. Instead, rivalry and the resulting competition and conlict are ubiqui- tous among autonomous organizations Smithers Rafael Biermann identiied the inherent strive of organizations for autonomy and visibility and asymme- try among partners further explored in Biermann , , instances of unclear division of labor and divergent organizational cultures as major causes for rivalry.
His concept of differentiation p. However, rivalry is complex, as is cooperation. A plethora of causal fac- tors interact.
Frequently, the exercise of various forms of power Ojanen, this Handbook and inluence Costa, this Handbook helps to explain rivalry. Many of the factors which inspire cooperation also inhibit cooperation when they are absent e. KOOPS boundary spanners, and previous negative experience with cooperation. While the inter-organizational literature has explored to some extent rivalry and the factors contributing to its rise, more research is needed on when these factors lead to the demise of a partnership and under which conditions rivalry is contained or managed in order to maintain an effective partnership.
Hence, an important aspect of IOR research—both at the conceptual and practical level—relates to the management of inter-organizational relations. Which poli- cies and initiatives exist to improve or facilitate partnerships once they have been formed? While visioning, convening and process design relate to the strategic management and design of inter-organizational relations from the start e. Techniques of conlict handling and brokering often in the form of mediation by an internal or ide- ally external agent need to be applied when open conlicts have erupted.
As mentioned above, the core task then becomes to manage IORs in such a way that the establishment of inter-orga- nizational epistemic communities is promoted. In other words, strong profes- sional and identity-based cooperation between key personnel leads to an increased awareness of common interests.
The more boundary spanners succeed in deepen- ing mutual knowledge, understanding, and trust, the more successful and stable cooperation can become. Since proitability is the main driving force of joint ventures and alliances in the ield of business and management, there is a stronger emphasis on timely and regular interventions than in partnerships between IGOs in world politics. Yet, with the increasing awareness among top oficials, more sophisticated inter- organizational management techniques may emerge.
It is therefore not too surprising that this aspect has received less attention and resources in relationships between IGOs than business-oriented joint ventures. In this perspective, evaluations often only scrutinize ways to improve cooperation mechanisms or policy coherence.
In this light, evaluating inter-organizational effectiveness relates not only to assessments of the level of cooperation or rivalry, network density, or the management of incompatibilities, but should make a theoretically informed, methodologically sound and empirics-based effort to assess the effects of inter-organizational cooperation. Here, past and current research on IOR in world politics remains at its weakest.
Provan and Sydow , pp. Many of the challenges of measuring causality were already discussed in the early publications. It is beyond this article to delve deeply into the rich literature on mea- suring effectiveness. However, when investigating the effectiveness of inter- organizational cooperation, four insights should be kept in mind. According to Scott , p. Thus, mutual representation in joint meetings might work per- fectly well, while simultaneously information sharing is hampered, or one proj- ect is seriously in trouble while another is functioning well see Gawrich, this Handbook.
Third, while the goal attainment approach measuring the degree of accom- plishing speciic goals set by the organizations themselves or by others pre- dominates the literature Sheehan , one should be aware that identifying the goals organizations pursue when partnering might be dificult. Unfortunately, they have so far hardly entered IR research.
Structural indicators focus on the extent to which organizations are structurally connected. KOOPS or in how far dysfunctions undermine cooperation evaluations relying on coun- terfactual analysis might be needed e. Joint impact assessments by the cooperating organizations themselves as currently carried out by the EU and UN in the ield of peacekeeping are an important tool to safeguard and, if needed, increase inter-organizational effectiveness, but only if it is carried out free from political constraints and in a transparent manner geared toward continuous inter-organizational learning Weaver Indeed, as noted at the beginning of this chap- ter, the history of theory of inter-organizational relations is a history of lagging behind the sheer speed of empirical developments on the ground.
Starting from the irst occurrences of regime overlap and competition between the AGTU formed in and the WETU formed in Richardson as well as their eventual relations with the International Telegraph Union ITU since Lyall ; Fari to the relations of the League of Nations with its associated organizations, the challenge of relations between international organizations in world politics emerged in earnest with the cre- ation of the United Nations in and its subsequent relations with other organizations.
It was only with the end of the Cold War and particularly in the ield of security studies that sustained scholarly interest emerged, spurred by the obvious problems emanating from lack of coordina- tion and outright competition between international organizations such as the UN, NATO, the OSCE, and the EU in the ield of crisis management.
Importing rich indings from these neighboring disciplines brings both advantages and risks.
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Advantages include the availability of advanced conceptualizations of scholars who evalu- ated, as we have seen, relations between irms, companies, alliances, and orga- nization sets. Yet, as this introductory chapter has also highlighted, the dialogue between IR and neighboring disciplines can be enriching and can contribute signiicantly to the advance of a distinct, mid-tier IR theory of inter-organizational relations. On the path toward this goal, the following sections outline some of the main theoretical and methodological challenges IOR scholars need to tackle.
Since there is no speciic IR theory of inter-organizational relations, scholars interested in theory-building need to refer to insights from disciplines that have engaged with this phenom- enon for much longer. The only option left is to try to establish connections between differ- ent research traditions and paradigms and to test common threads and recur- ring conceptual tools such as, for example, resource dependence theory.
Yet, it is also important not to fall into the trap of mistaking often-cited paradigms as the analytical strongest.
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Furthermore, IR scholars interested in pushing for- ward a theory-guided research agenda on inter-organizational relations should not only import concepts and insights from other disciplines, but must also match these developments with established concepts in their own discipline. The main difference of course revolves around the inluence, power, and behavior of member states, as well as particular policy challenges related to global governance.
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In other words, to what extent are insights from one comprehen- sively assessed dyad e. Here, only time and systematic exploration of large comparative studies will tell. A further methodological problem arises out of the different mixes of inductive and deductive methods. As a relatively young research ield that rou- tinely draws on insights from other disciplines, studies often luctuate between approaches of cherry-picking particular existing insights or concepts in order to match them with appropriate but isolated instances of empirical develop- ments. Conversely, empirical examples that could prove or disprove certain theoretical claims still remain too limited and some issue areas such as security studies remain overrepresented, while other areas are less explored.
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Admittedly, this is a problem we have also faced as editors of this Handbook, but hope to at least remedy to a certain extent with the broad approach advanced here. There is still a tendency to pick selectively core concepts from neighboring disciplines and match them in a limited manner with empirical evidence. What is needed is more engagement with hypotheses and assumptions that provide general insights beyond the particular sub-concept or speciic case study under scrutiny. The bulk of research consists of isolated case stud- ies of dyads e.