Firearms, the Law and Forensic Ballistics (Taylor & Francis Forensic Science Series)
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Winchester Soft Point, 7. A sphere is, however, not suitable for studies incorporating helmets. Preliminary work to develop a suitable anatomically correct skull brain model for ballistic studies incorporating a helmet have been reported [ 11 ].
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Only six results were reported, but the fracture patterns generated were compared to the limited forensic anthropology literature that exists and demonstrated macroscopic similarities [ 12 , 13 ]. The aim of this subsequent work was to assess if the fracture patterns produced under a series of further experimental conditions using simple simulants would be assessed as realistic by clinical experts. The research described in this paper was carried out in a number of stages. Anatomically correct polymeric skulls were manufactured from rapid prototype data obtained by 3D mapping of both the internal and external surfaces of a human skull ARRK Europe Ltd.
Craig Vickers, Personal communication, January The two parts of the skull were bonded using cyanoacrylate adhesive Loctite, Henkel Corp.
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This was the incentive to explore the behaviour of different gelatine concentrations. The gelatine was then either:. The first nine skulls were shot with 7. The next 30 were shot with 7. Sectioned 7. Left , Czech; right , Ukrainian. Prior to each shot, the impact site on the model Fig.
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Bullet velocity was tracked using a Weibel Doppler and impacts filmed using two Phantom high speed cameras V12 and V Fig. Experimental setup.
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The score sheet also included space for comments if the clinician wished to provide them Fig. Shot skull assessment setup.
The clinicians invited to assess the skull models have either looked after casualties with ballistic head injury, reviewed x-ray and CT images from such casualties or conducted post mortem examinations of fatalities. Two had been regular members of the Mortality Peer Review Panel, a multidisciplinary group undertaking peer review of UK military deaths including the nature of the injuries and treatment given [ 3 ].
The current study was an opportunity to harvest this extensive collective knowledge. The backgrounds of the clinicians were two Civilian Home Office Forensic Pathologists, and a military radiologist, neurosurgeon and maxillofacial surgeon. The clinicians were briefed on the bullet type used i.
No formal training in an assessment method was given; the clinicians were invited to score the skulls based on their own prior experience. A typical fracture sequence captured with the V12 camera is shown in Fig. Frontal impact sequence. The free-text comments and notes made on the score sheets by the clinicians were also transcribed into an Excel spreadsheet so that comments about the wound characteristics and fracture patterns could be compared and assessed.
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The effect of polymer type on fracture score was determined using analysis of variance ANOVA ; homogeneity and normality of data were checked, and a significance level of 0. Descriptive statistics for the effect of polymer type on Likert-type score for fracture pattern. Descriptive statistics for the effect of skull contents and temperature on fracture score. Of the 39 skulls assessed, 23 were given a score of 3 by at least one assessor and seven a score of 4 by at least one assessor. Assessor comments, where given, are included to demonstrate the elements that they felt were or were not representative of real injury.
In addition to their overall Likert-type fracture pattern score, assessors also commented on how realistic some of the entry and exit wounds appeared, along with the impact of the post mortem cut line. Examples of impacted skulls are shown in Fig. Frequency of comments on entry and exit wound appearance plus influence of the PM cut line. Examples of impacted skulls. The skulls have been reconstructed where possible.
Firearms, the Law, and Forensic Ballistics - CRC Press Book. Series: International Forensic Science and Investigation. What are VitalSource eBooks?. Firearms, the Law, and Forensic Ballistics (International Forensic Science and . Series: International Forensic Science and Investigation (Book 23); Hardcover.
Fracture lines are highlighted using black ink. Fracture line and exit site ii ; skull 12, exit site, looking through to rear aspect of entry wound iii. There were differences of opinion. For example, in two skulls numbers 8 and 11 , non-pathologists commented that the fracture patterns were too extreme to reflect reality.
Cartridges for these weapons were still produced in quantity, particularly in France, well into the twentieth century. DeKinder, J. Significant injury but too many fragments. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 42 3 Olsen, P. Geddes Effects of Stun Guns and Tasers. It also reviews specialist crime scene examinations including clandestine laboratories, drug operations, arson, and explosives.
These were both scored high by one pathologist and the radiologist. The published literature includes cases of similar devastating head injury [ 17 ]. The useful observation is that experts will interpret based on past experience which needs to be matched to the injury being investigated or modelled. The majority view from the clinicians was that many of the entrance wounds were not realistic.
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A bullet penetrating the skull typically creates a round to oval shaped hole in the outer table of the bone with a large bevelled out hole on the inner table. Atypical appearances do occur including bevelling of entrance wounds [ 21 ]. The same effect is seen here where the polyurethane material used for the skulls does not reflect the complex structure of actual cranial bone.
The bullet strike may cause direct secondary radial fractures originating from the impact sites [ 22 ]. In addition, the rapid rise in intracranial pressure from the temporary cavity in the brain tissue can cause indirect tertiary concentric fractures. These features are summarised in Fig. The secondary and tertiary fractures in high-energy strikes can cause fragmentation of the original penetrating defects making assessment of which was the entry and exit wound complicated.
As described by Thali [ 7 ], a synthetic model that produces realistic injury patterns would be very useful for forensic reconstructions and be free of the ethical issues and biological variation inherent in using animals and cadaveric specimens [ 10 ]. As described by Viel et al.
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Approaches to managing this are being explored. A number of approaches to simulate skin have been reported in the literature [ 24 ], and work is ongoing to develop a suitable skin and soft tissue layers for this model. This paper only reports findings with two variants of one ammunition type. Other weapon systems or ammunition types may produce different results under these experimental conditions.
At least one assessor out of five felt that the fracture pattern was close to real injury in over half of the models. Generally, the exit wounds were thought to be more realistic than the entry wounds. The model does have a number of limitations, and future work is planned to address the bonding between the two parts of the skull along with building realistic skin and tissue layers.
National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. International Journal of Legal Medicine. Int J Legal Med. Published online Mar 7. Mahoney , 1, 2 D. Carr , 2 R. Delaney , 3 N. Hunt , 4 S. Harrison , 5 J. Breeze , 5 and I. Gibb 6.
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