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Richards states that in many language programs teachers are often reluctant to take part in observation or related activities since it is associated with evaluation. Dennis M. Email address. Intention is associated with I will whereas self-efficacy is associated with I can. Criteria for evaluating teaching.
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Start on. Show related SlideShares at end. Teachers have to apply their knowledge, especially their practical knowledge, to cope with the constant barrage of complex situations they find themselves confronted with. Teacher thinking is used loosely to refer to various processes such as perception, reflection, problem solving, inquiring, and the manipulation of ideas Calderhead In their work, teachers use a body of specialized knowledge on topics such as curriculum planning, teaching methods, subject matter, classroom management, and child behavior, together with other information gained through the experience of working with children in numerous contexts and with different materials.
Shulman considered teaching as clinical information and a cognitive process that includes perception, expectation, diagnostic judgment, prescription, and decision making. In order to make the right decisions, teachers need personal and professional knowledge of teaching and learning different topics. These needs can only be discerned after interacting with students, giving them instruction, and experiencing the classroom dynamics Ball and Forzani Teachers must often react to situations immediately and intuitively.
This raises the question of how to help teacher candidates to make the right decisions promptly. They must develop the habit of thinking early in their careers to foster their skills through regularly implementing practice and reflection. Through this process, teachers can develop more specialized knowledge and skills that can be applied to future situations.
Teacher candidates are often inexperienced in self-criticism as well as in grasping constructive or imaginative ideas and in the implementation of those ideas. The responsibility of pre-service teacher education is to provide programs and mentors that address the role of teacher thinking and use methods of inquiry to study the conceptions, implicit theories, and judgment processes of teaching practice Clark and Lampert This is especially important if teacher candidates come with incomplete and erroneous pre-conceptions about teaching and its complexities.
Teacher thinking is the starting point of the process for collecting, reflecting, reasoning, understanding, and accumulating practical wisdom. The habit of teacher thinking ought to be a primary goal of pre-service teacher education. The habit of teacher thinking is cultivated through practical experience and through deliberate application of theory to practice.
The habit of teacher thinking starts with guidance during pre-service teacher education and continues through in-service professional development. Governments can incorporate teacher thinking into their national teaching standards. These standards outline the profile of ideal teachers in England that clearly represents thoughtful teachers who have up-to-date knowledge and skills, and a capacity for self-criticism, and who can anticipate what students need for academic achievement and well-being Department for Education According to the function of standards, the content of the standards is an extension of a national consensus of ideal teacher features used to guide the direction of teacher education Ingvarson and Rowe ; Stephenson ; Sykes and Plastrik Once teacher thinking has been incorporated into these standards, the cultivation of teacher thinking has to be put into the practice of teacher education.
Thus, the teacher education program should include two major elements: educational foundation courses and field experience.
Teaching involves not only methodology but also philosophical and theoretical understanding. Schwab pointed out that educational knowledge forms comprise theoretical disciplines, being concerned with with learners; practical disciplines, being concerned with choices, decisions, and actions based on deliberate decision; and productive disciplines, being concerned with the learners. Shulman categorized teacher knowledge bases into seven categories: content knowledge; general pedagogical knowledge; curriculum knowledge; pedagogical content knowledge; knowledge of learners and their characteristics; knowledge of educational contexts and of educational ends, purposes, and values; and knowledge of their philosophical and historical grounds.
Darling-Hammond also indicated that the framework for understanding teaching and learning comprises knowledge of learners and their development in social contexts, knowledge of subject matter and curriculum goals, and knowledge of teaching. According to Hollins , the qualities that support learning to teach include collaboration, coherence, continuity, and consistency. Therefore, teacher educators shape the common-sense goal of training candidates to practice thinking ahead by utilizing teacher strategies or assessment methods such as case studies, observations, videotaping, discussions, and using reflection sheets in their teaching.
Furthermore, once the goal of a teacher education program has been formulated, connections can be made between the courses in the program. For instance, in teaching the sociology of education, case studies or case analysis by individual reports or group projects can be used to present and examine social mobility.
For example, if cultural capital is an influential factor for social mobility in a case study, then a similar case can be part of an assignment on teaching material and methods. In the latter, teacher candidates could be requested to design teaching materials for supply to those with insufficient cultural capital. The trend in teacher education programs is to build teaching practice from educational theory.
Teaching practice is as important for teachers as clinical experience is for doctors. The trend of searching for a more holistic approach to train effective teachers has been labeled as the realistic pedagogy of teacher education by Korthagen , the practice-focused curriculum for learning teaching by Ball and Forzani , and the holistic practice-based approach by Hollins In authentic situations, teacher candidates can use thinking and reasoning skills to formulate problems and to generate hypotheses, which Shulman indicates as the key to medical diagnostic success, and to enlarge their knowledge base for teaching and accumulate personal knowledge or wisdom by internalizing their individual cognitive structure Tamir Teacher candidates identify differences between problems and attempt to reduce them through thinking and extended deliberate practice to acquire and refine their cognitive skills.
This process is what Ericsson called cognitive mediation, Hollins called epistemic practice, and Fenstermacher referred to as the epistemology of practice. Deliberate practice, purposefully and critically rehearsing certain kinds of performance, is important to the development of expertise Ericsson The process of thinking, such as collecting information, identifying problems, making hypotheses, is designed to help teacher candidates connect theory and practice in order to understand the context of effective teaching and to cultivate and upgrade their professional teaching ability.
Teacher candidates go on their teaching practicum during their senior year of university. Some professors arrange tours to different schools in Taiwan.
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This intensive practicum is another opportunity to put thinking into practice. Due to the regulation of the Teacher Education Act in Taiwan, teacher candidates obtain their teacher qualification after taking a half-year practicum involving day-long teaching practice in school.
Teacher candidates must experience four parts of school life: teaching practice, classroom affairs, administrative affairs, and professional development. This includes the hours of the actual practicum posting but is calculated totalling up the entire amount of hours spent in schools. Teacher thinking is among the professional standards that directs the content and implementation of teacher education courses. Thus, the way to find evidence of teacher candidate performance is as important as curriculum design. Such understanding must reflect criteria important for actual performance in a field of work.
Methods of authentic assessment include portfolio and performance-based assessment that can be used in university courses or in the teaching practicum during pre-service and induction phases of the teacher education program. A challenge of the portfolio collation is to ensure that teacher artifacts should not only be based on performance assessment criteria. Instead, teacher candidates should have the opportunity for meaningful dialog and debate about education, teaching, and learning Delandshere and Arens The ESA is thus a formative assessment in the development of teacher candidates, providing useful feedback to teacher candidates and teacher educators Pecheone and Chung As previously mentioned, teacher candidates can experience actual school life through field study, teaching practicum courses, and, for example in Taiwan, the education practicum.
Although teacher candidates have many opportunities to practice their skills, teacher candidates without any guidance can become frustrated by their errors as well as be confronted by a reality shock. Cooperative teachers and university professors as supervisors are needed to help teacher candidates learn how to teach.
PBA using tasks modified from the PACT also provide teacher candidates with some independent guidance and with some support from cooperative teachers and supervisors. PBA was designed to correspond to the four parts of the teaching practicum teaching practice, class affairs practice, administrative affairs practice, and professional development. First, PBA creates steps to follow such as learning modes, observation, planning, action, and reflection. Second, several issues or questions are raised to make teacher candidates notice key points about complex classroom situations.
Third, these key points of awareness are also reviewed by standards for teacher education in the induction stages in Taiwan. PBA helps teacher candidates know what types of situations contain key practices to reflect upon and why. This reflection leads to the accumulation of practice and experience and the formation of implicit knowledge or practical wisdom.
Another approach to assessing teacher thinking, the TSJT, compensates for the shortcoming of traditional written exams for awarding teaching licenses. SJT is a measuring method and a tool for selecting employees based on tacit knowledge or practical know-how that usually not explicitly expressed or stated and that cannot be acquired through direct instruction.
The purpose of the SJT is to identify individuals whose tacit knowledge indicates the potential for successful performance. It typically presents applicants with task stimuli that mimic an actual job situation and elicit responses, which are interpreted as direct indicators of the how the applicant would handle the task if it were actually to occur in the workplace. After the test, teacher candidates can identify their strengths and weaknesses in these five dimensions.
This allows them to pay more attention to their weaker areas, and strengthen their skills independently during their pre-service teacher education or their teaching practicum. As discussed in this paper, teacher thinking is a habit and a strategic process for collecting information, reflecting, understanding, solving problems, making decisions, initiating action, and accumulating practical wisdom. The habit of teacher thinking can be cultivated during pre-service teacher education and be continued during the induction phase and during in-service teacher education.
To cultivate a thinking ability in teachers, governments can enact teacher professional standards that direct the process of teacher education. From the policy formulation practice, teachers should have opportunities to think and reflect, and that this should become a habit so that they can accumulate practical wisdom. When teachers possess practical wisdom, they can make the right decisions to ensure better student learning outcomes and, consequently, a better future quality of life.
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