Muslims of Europe: The Other Europeans
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As soon as the guest worker program was canceled, the migrants sent for their families to join them in Germany. The Netherlands had a similar experience whereby workers, mainly Turkish and Moroccan Buijs, , and their families entered the country Doomernik, France had a similar experience with mostly North and West African migrants. In , the guest workers who had remained were legally permitted to bring over their families and gain citizenship Salem, In Britain, this happened even sooner, with an immigration ban being instituted in Although it prevented more workers into the country, it created a system for the workers who were present to bring in their families Leiken, The Dutch response to the labor migration that turned permanent was a series of multicultural programs that encouraged immigrants to retain their own culture rather than to assimilate.
The German response was to treat the immigrant communities as just guest workers until the s, separating them from German society Salem, Indeed, until the German government passed citizenship reforms that granted birthright citizenship to children of immigrants who had lived on German soil for eight years and eased naturalization, these immigrants were largely in citizenship limbo Anil, Citizenship remains a key component of integration. Without it, immigrants are limited in how they can interact with civil society. Citizenship gives one a greater sense of belonging de Rooij, and can fuel both political and professional participation with others.
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When the guest worker programs were canceled in Europe, many of the workers made the rational choice to stay and work illegally rather than return to poverty in their home countries. Interestingly, extending citizenship to these former guest workers or not terminating the program in the first places creates a circular flow with relatively few permanently settled residents.
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Increasing labor market regulations and a growing welfare state eventually pushed them out of the labor market but not out of the country. Multicultural policies separated the migrants from their neighbors while citizenship laws kept them and their descendants in a legal underclass. The United States avoided virtually all of these mistakes through not having a federal integration policy that emphasized cultural fads and by mandating birthright citizenship. Though Europe in recent years has moved away from multiculturalism towards assimilation, multicultural policy of the s and 80s has left a lasting effect on integration to the present.
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Cultural Barriers to Assimilation in Europe Different histories and cultural attitudes toward immigration in Europe and the United States also help explain the different outcomes Leiken, Immigration is engrained into the founding and continuous formation of the United States, but in a Europe defined by near-homogeneous ethnically-demarcated nation-states, immigration is recent and more troubling Leiken, European multicultural policies made assimilation and integration more costly and helped to legitimize parallel communities.
In Britain, multiculturalism emerged to counter discrimination, and encouraged new British subjects to live differently if they chose to Malik, , including a preservation of their cultural identity at the cost of social inclusion Leiken, German policies halted that process. Western Europe finds itself in a struggle between the ideals of modern universal tolerance and national ethnic-based identities that predate the current waves of immigration. European governments have made many mistakes in dealing with this issue. Inclusive programs to help these new ethnic and religious minorities created coexisting societies that run parallel to mainstream society, rather than in cohesion with their adopted homeland.
The negative impact on citizenship as an institution has spilled over into other facets of life for Muslim immigrants, including employment, economic mobility, education, social acceptance, and political life. Political Participation In the United States, Muslims are about as politically active as their fellow countryman but not so in Western Europe. Muslim Americans are more likely to have a college degree than Americans generally while Muslim immigrants to Europe are much less well educated than native Europeans so the education difference could explain the difference Angenendt et al.
They more readily embrace their American identity and have confidence in American institutions Angenendt et al. Less educated European Muslims are more isolated, less economically successful, and they are less interested in participating in politics and civil society. They have less faith in European institutions and fewer resources to devote to community building. Religion Americans are more tolerant of religious differences and are more likely to recognize the positive role of religion than Europeans Foner and Alba, Religious immigrants in the United States frequently use religion as a bridge to social inclusion and taking up American identity.
The interchange between Muslims and Europe has a long and complicated history, dating back to before the idea of 'Europe' was born, and the earliest ye. 'While many today think we need to go beyond multiculturalism, Hellyer argues that the success of what he calls stage one multiculturalism means neither the.
Europeans are less religious and there are fewer legal protections for religion. Broadly, European secularists either seek a rejection of religion from all public life or seek to promote a diversity of religious views Mandaville, Albania and the Kosovo area remained under Ottoman rule until Prior to the Ottoman conquest, the northern Albanians were Roman Catholic and the southern Albanians were Christian Orthodox, but by the majority were Muslim. Apart from the effect of a lengthy period under Ottoman domination, many of the subject population were converted to Islam as a result of a deliberate move by the Ottomans as part of a policy of ensuring the loyalty of the population against a potential Venetian invasion.
Islam piqued interest among European scholars, setting off the movement of Orientalism. During the 12th-century Renaissance in Europe, Latin translations of Arabic texts were introduced. Muslim emigration to metropolitan France surged during the Algerian War of Independence. The exact number of Muslims in Europe is unknown. As of , Approximately 9 million Turks were living in Europe outside of Turkey. This made Turks the largest immigrant Muslim population in Europe.
It also depends on if only observant Muslims or all people of Muslim descent are counted.
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A survey conducted by Pew Research Center in found that Muslims make up 4. On the other hand, the non-Muslim fertility rate in Europe would increase from 1.
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The projections depend on the level of migration. The projections varied greatly by country. Vatican City. According to Pew Research Center in , most Europeans favour restrictions on face-covering veils. As opposed to politicians and "intellectuals", people perceive Islamic dress to not represent religious symbols but a repressive ideology in the form of islamism which intends to extend its influence into family, society and politics.
Muslim girls and women are murdered for honor in both the Western world and elsewhere for refusing to wearing the hijab or for not wearing it strictly. In the first four countries also Moroccan immigrants were interviewed. Two thirds of Muslims the majority responded that religious rules are more important than civil laws and three quarters rejecting religious pluralism within Islam. The conclusion was that religious fundamentalism is much more prevalent among European Muslims than among Christian natives. Perceived discrimination is a marginal predictor of religious fundamentalism.
Instead, it was found that Belgium which has comparatively generous policies towards Muslims and immigrants in general also had a relatively high level of fundamentalism. France and Germany which have restricitive policies had lower levels of fundamentalism. In , the EU Counter-terrorism Coordinator Gilles de Kerchove stated in an interview that there were more than 50 radicals and jihadists in Europe.
The European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia reports that the Muslim population tends to suffer Islamophobia all over Europe, although the perceptions and views of Muslims may vary. In according to the Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau annual report, half the Dutch population and half the Moroccan and Turkish minorities stated that the Western lifestyle cannot be reconciled with that of Muslims. Furthermore, a majority agreed with statements like "Muslims are intolerant of customs and values other than their own.
A February poll of 10 people in 10 European countries by Chatham House found on average a majority were opposed to further Muslim immigration, with opposition especially pronounced in Austria, Poland, Hungary, France and Belgium. The authors of the study add that these countries, except Poland, had in the preceding years suffered jihadist terror attacks or been at the centre of a refugee crisis. They also mention that in most of the polled countries the radical right has political influence. According to a WZB report investigating Muslims in Germany, France, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, Belgium and Switzerland, Muslims in Europe generally have higher levels of unemployment which is to a great part caused by the lack of language skills, the lack of inter-ethnic social ties and a traditional view of gender roles where women are not to work outside the home.
Discrimination from employers caused a small part of the unemployment. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Islam in Europe by percentage of country population [1]. Azerbaijan Kosovo Turkey.
Bosnia and Herzegovina Albania. Bulgaria Cyprus Georgia Montenegro Russia. Italy Serbia. Luxembourg Slovenia Spain. Croatia Ireland Ukraine.
The Emirate of Sicily was established in They are not expelled from the country, neither are they forced to embrace the Turkish faith: then they must of themselves have been converted into Turks. Italy Serbia. RA: They said the exact same thing about Jews before they started slaughtering them. Bosnia was conquered by the Ottomans in , and a large portion of the population converted to Islam in the first years of Ottoman domination. They are lost as second-class citizens to whom France is inaccessible.
The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. August Learn how and when to remove this template message. Table, Islam by country. See also: Category:Islamic organizations in Europe. See also: List of mosques in Europe.
Main article: Islamic dress in Europe. Main article: Honor killing.
See also: Category:Islamism in Europe. Status by country. Specific incidents. See also: Islamophobia and Criticism of Islam. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 22 October Political Studies. Islamic Science and Engineering.
Muslim Immigration and Integration in the United States and Western Europe
Edinburgh Univ. The Legend of the Middle Ages.
Retrieved 11 Feb Icon Books Limited. It was in the Near and Middle East and North Africa that the old traditions of teaching and learning continued, and where Christian scholars were carefully preserving ancient texts and knowledge of the ancient Greek language. The Crusades: Islamic perspectives , Routledge, , p.
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