Women Between Two Worlds: Midlife Reflections on Work and Family (Women In The Political Economy)

Gender Ratio

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Under communism, everyone was guaranteed employment.

Table of Contents

However, women suffered the double burden of paid and unpaid work, leading to lower birth rates. The commitment to social equality and the issue of declining birth rates allowed women to have some rights, such as child care and child allowances. Although there has been an increase in female workers, their need for welfare support such as child care has not been met, and has been ignored. In Western and Southern Asia , women represent only a third of the work force.

The issue of the double burden is exacerbated in Asian countries due to the large cultural norm of women doing care work held by both men and women. In many developed countries, women drop out of work when they have children in order to have more time to take care of them. In countries where women have to do paid work in order to feed their family, there is a lack of regulation and safety standards regarding female workers due to the large amount of informal work available.

This increases the work intensity by women doing more than one job at a time, and has been shown to have deteriorating effects on women's health. Traditional gender ideologies have contributed to the double burden because it posits women as caretakers, men as providers, and each gender occupying their own sphere of influence.

Although research has shown that attitudes about gender roles have become more egalitarian over the past few decades, "these changes in gender attitudes have not been accompanied by corresponding changes in the allocation of housework". Despite women's increasing participation in the work force, a gender division of labor persist. There are a number of constraints in the labor market that contribute to the double burden. Even within the formal market, there is occupational segregation and a gender wage gap.

Occupational segregation can be either horizontal or vertical: horizontal segregation limits women to certain sectors and occupations, while vertical segregation restricts them to particular positions within occupational hierarchies. Men and women are even found at different levels of the occupational hierarchy. The " glass ceiling " is the relative absence of women in senior or managerial positions due to institutional barriers and norms.

Even in female-dominated occupations, men often occupy the more skilled and better paid positions. The gender wage gap is a possible consequence of occupational segregation. The gender wage gap is the "difference between wages earned by women and men". The gender wage gap is narrowing, but progress remains slow.

Additionally, the narrowing of the gender wage gap may be attributed to a decrease in men's wages instead of an increase in women's wages. There are various societal pressures that combine to create the double burden, including some economic thinking of domestic work , thoughts about net household gain, and the perceived notion that women are more likely to ask for maternity leave than men. Many classical economists believe that child care does not contribute to economic growth of the nation.

Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy documents women’s lives in the hope of combatting male power.

They believe that welfare states such as Sweden are subsidizing work that is unproductive, and often think of children like a pet that only consumes without growing up to be productive workers. This creates the thought that women should do paid work and lose some time doing domestic jobs without the man taking time away from paid work to do domestic jobs, creating a deficit of hours necessary to do unpaid work that need to get filled. One of the political pressures, it is suggested by Susan Himmelweit is the issue of whom to empower.

When there are considerations of policies, politicians usually only consider work as paid labor, and do not take into account the interdependence between unpaid work and paid work. It is also often common to think that women make economic decisions similarly to men. This is typically not the case, because for men, payment is simply a compensation for lost leisure time.

However, for women, when they are working in the paid sector, they are still losing money because they have to make provisions for the domestic labor they are unable to do, such as caring for children or making dinner from scratch due to lack of resources such as child care. Such policies give greater power and consideration towards people who work in the paid sector, and less towards people who work in the unpaid sector. Another political issue surrounding the double burden is what sort of policies directly or indirectly affect those who do domestic work.

Some policies that companies have, such as a lower rate for part-time workers or firing workers when they get pregnant can be seen as disempowering women. Debate as to whether this is gender segregation continues. However, there is also the argument that similar to men who fail to meet the standards of the company and cannot comply with their contract, women who cannot perform work at the performance expected of them should be given the proportionate number of benefits and given no exceptions over men. As the term double burden might suggest, when people consider paid work vs.

In reality, men and especially women often undertake both paid and unpaid labor simultaneously, creating the issue of work intensity , where the person undertakes many activities at the same time in order to compensate for the time necessary to accomplish many things in one day. Because of this, the time taken for child care and other domestic activities may be underestimated. This coping mechanism of undertaking two or more tasks at once can especially be seen in women in developing countries. Due to the increasing trend of decreased fertility rate, there has been an increased nuclearization of the family, where families have less immediate relatives to depend on in times of need.

Because of this phenomenon, families do not have an extended family to depend on when they need a caretaker or someone to do domestic work, and must turn to market substitutes or a member of the immediate family doing both domestic and paid work instead.

Double burden

Many studies have been done to investigate the division of household labor within couples, and more specifically, on the gender roles played by a variety of people worldwide. According to The State of the World's Children , women generally work longer hours than men regardless if they live in a developed or developing country.

In Conway's studies, he discovers the physical, emotional, and psychological differences between men and women faced with the double burden in Canada. Even though the effects of raising children and having a career simultaneously are mostly seen in women throughout many societies, the men in such situations are affected greatly as well.

With this in mind, it is very possible that some may have lied when surveyed about these topics. Parenting is a large task within itself, and when a parent has a career as well, it can cause a double burden, or work—family conflict.

Strain begins to develop when women and men find that the demands of their family are conflicting with the demands from their job. Kevin, et al. Let us never be burdened by it but let's celebrate the joy that it brings. Celebrate those first steps or words, the first school play, their graduation day, passing those exams, landing their first job, getting married, making you grandparents.

Whatever it is, let's celebrate our children. It's not easy, but the art of juggling can always be mastered! Her advice to those considering going back to school is, "Talk to an educational consultant and people in the field you want to be in. Will you be available to go to your child's softball game or have time to cook dinner? For people who have a hard time fitting classes into their schedule around the needs of their family, there are options where they will be required to do all of the work for a course, but it will all take place online. The double burden is usually viewed as a primary problem for single women or married women.

However, it is often less recognized that men can and often do go through the same trials and hard times as a parent trying to balance work and the family. Eichler says, " Social science fails to understand men" by tending "to downplay or ignore a potential conflict between work and home for men.

He has to change the way he feels about himself as man.

13.1. Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society

The double burden that single mothers endure has a historical precedent, and still exists currently. Single mothers usually have higher rates of employment and children at home, and have the highest levels overall of the double burden. Women also typically have less economic resources than men, and have no partner to share the workload with them. They may face job discrimination and not earn as much, so there will be further difficulties in maintaining the double burden.

Single-mother families tend to hover near the poverty line , with a poverty rate that is twice as high of that for men. The double burden also presents itself in households with married parents.

What Has Changed in Parents’ Ties to Young Adults

Households with two parents may only have one working parent providing the majority of domestic activities. Because of women's expanded roles in the workforce have generally not been accompanied by any relaxation of expectations for their family and domestic activities, many women today face the double burden of home and work responsibilities.

Women and men in these families were equally likely to be caregivers Unattached women and men were also equally likely to be caregivers However, women were overrepresented as caregivers among lone-parent families and couple families with no children: Leisure is an important part of daily life that enables individuals to relax and recharge; engage in enrichment activities and reflection; and enhance relationships and form social networks upon which they can draw in times of need.

Women spent an average of 3. Women and men in were equally likely to participate in leisure activities as their counterparts in , but those who did so reduced the amount of time that they spent on these activities by 24 and 12 minutes, respectively, between and In addition to spending less time on leisure than men, women participated in different types of leisure activities.

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